Friday, June 17, 2016

The Supreme Court Resets How False Claims Act Liability Should Be Determined for False Certification Claims: Universal Health Services Inc. v. United States ex rel. Escobar

Dear Readers:

Yesterday the Supreme Court issued its long-awaited opinion in the False Claims Act case, Universal Health Services, Inc., v. United States ex rel. Julio Escobar and Carmen Correa, 579 U.S. __ (2016), often referred to as the "Escobar case." The Court's unanimous opinion resets how False Claims Act ("FCA") liability is determined for legally false claims, i.e., those claims based on false certifications, express or implied, made by a provider or contractor in conjunction with submitting claims for payment to the Government. Essentially, Escobar seeks to anchor the FCA's prohibition against "false or fraudulent" claims in the common law definition of fraud. Common law fraud encompasses either affirmative misrepresentations or misleading omissions. For fraud to occur, however, the Court stressed that misrepresentations or omissions relating to a statutory, regulatory, or contractual requirement must be material to the Government's payment decision. At the same time, the Supreme Court "clarified" that materiality is a "rigorous" requirement, and determining what is or is not material does not "depend on what label the Government attaches to a requirement."  

The Supreme Court initially affirmed that FCA liability can be based on an "implied false certification" based on dramatic facts relating to counseling and medical treatment provided by a mental health care facility to a teenage patient which led to her death. In Escobar, the facility represented in its claims to Medicaid that it had provided specified therapies and other types of treatment to the beneficiary. In reality, the facility had not provided the therapies and treatment it billed for because many of its personnel were neither licensed or qualified to provide these services and in fact had misrepresented their qualifications and licensing status to the government to obtain provider numbers that permitted them to submit claims to Medicaid. The Court found that the facility's Medicaid claims "do more than merely demand payment."  Rather, the claims were "actionable misrepresentations" because they contained "half truths" while "omitting critical qualifying information." Escobar held that the implied certification theory could be a basis for FCA liability "at least where two conditions are satisfied: first, the claim does not merely request payment, but also makes specific representations about the goods or services provided; and second, the defendant's failure to disclose noncompliance with material statutory, regulatory or contractual requirements makes those representations misleading half-truths."

In the second half of its opinion, the Supreme Court addressed whether FCA liability can be based only where a defendant fails to disclose that it has violated an "expressly designated condition of payment." Escobar essentially rejected the express condition of payment/condition of participation dichotomy developed by the appellate courts in false certification cases, finding instead that FCA liability arises only if the defendant fails to disclose in submitting a claim that it has violated a material condition of payment. And then it threw a curve ball: "statutory, regulatory, and contractual requirements are not automatically material, even if they are labeled conditions of payment." In fact, the Court noted that if FCA liability depended only on violating express conditions of payment,"[t]he Government might respond by designating every legal requirement an express condition of payment. But billing parties are often subject to thousands of complex statutory and regulatory provisions. Facing [FCA] liability for violating any of them would hardly help would-be-defendants anticipate and prioritize compliance obligations."  


The FCA's "materiality standard," the Supreme Court pointed out, is "demanding." The Court explained further: "[t]he [FCA] is not an all-purpose anti-fraud statute or a vehicle for punishing garden-variety breaches of contract or regulatory violations. A misrepresentation cannot be deemed material merely because the Government designates compliance with a particular statutory regulatory, or contractual requirement as a condition of payment. Nor is it sufficient for finding of materiality that the Government would have the option to decline to pay if it knew of the defendant's noncompliance. Materiality . . . cannot be found where noncompliance is minor or insubstantial." (internal quotes/citations omitted).

Noting that the FCA's definition of materiality "descends from common-law antecedents," the Supreme Court then looked to common-law characterization of materiality to define it. Citing Williston on Contracts, Escobar explained that "[u]nder any understanding of the concept, materiality looks[s] to the effect on the likely or actual behavior of the recipient of the alleged misrepresentation." Looking to the Restatements on Torts and Contracts, the Court identified two key criteria for determining materiality: "(1) if a reasonable man would attach importance to [it] in determining his choice of action in the transaction; or (2) if the defendant knew or had reason to know that the recipient of the representation attaches importance to the specific matter in determining his choice of action, even though a reasonable man would not." (internal quotes/citations omitted). 

In a footnote, Escobar rejected the appellant's assertion that "materiality is too fact intensive for courts to dismiss [FCA] cases on a motion to dismiss or summary judgment." The Court explained further that "[FCA] plaintiffs must also plead their claims with plausibility and particularity under Federal Rules of Civil Procedure 8 and 9(b) by, for instance, pleading facts to support allegations of materiality."

The Court's opinion ended with a reminder that the FCA "is not a means of imposing treble damages and other penalties for insignificant regulatory or contractual violations.  This case centers on allegations of fraud, not medial malpractice."

Overall, Escobar contains something for relators, defendants, and the government. By rooting FCA liability to the common law definition of fraud, the Supreme Court seeks to apply the FCA to serious frauds and effectively prevent it being used as a weapon to police technical violations and contractual disputes. Having given broad guidance and repeated injunctions as to the "rigorous" standard for materiality, it is up to the courts below to further expand and apply these principles.

A. Brian Albritton
June 17, 2016

Wednesday, June 15, 2016

DOJ Announces New Policy Regarding Individal Accountability and Corporate Cooperation for False Claim Act Cases

Dear Readers:

Acting Associate Attorney General Bill Baer spoke at the ABA's 11th National Institute on Civil False Claims Act and Qui Tam Enforcement last week in Washington, D.C. AAG Baer addressed how the U.S. Department of Justice (DOJ) will focus on individual accountability in civil False Claims Act (FCA) cases and in light of that focus, what steps corporations must undertake to earn "cooperation credit" in settling FCA cases. These new DOJ policies announced by AAG Baer are very important for practitioners in qui tam/FCA cases and will certainly impact how corporate defendants investigate, report, and settle FCA cases.

DOJ published AAG Baer's remarks, which are found here. I highlight below those portions of his remarks that I found to be most interesting.

First, AAG Baer addressed how the DOJ policy of holding individuals accountable for corporate misdeeds, announced in the Yates memo, would be "implemented" in FCA cases. He stated:
  • DOJ is committed "to the notion that individual accountability applies with equal force and logic to the department's civil enforcement."
  • In applying the Yates memo, DOJ starts "by asking department attorneys to make sure they are examining the potential liability of individual actors at the outset of an investigation into corporate wrongdoing" and it is "department policy to pursue civilly those individuals who are responsible [for FCA violations] and hold them accountable in addition to pursuing our civil case against the organization."
FCA practitioners will see a concrete difference in FCA government investigations and intervened cases because
  • "At the very outset of any FCA investigation into a corporate scheme, [DOJ] attorneys are instructed to focus on both the company and individuals who may be responsible for bad conduct . . . . Our inquiry into individual misconduct now proceeds in tandem with the underlying corporate investigation."
In a "departure from past practice," FCA settlements and releases will no longer automatically include a release of corporate executives and employees: that is, DOJ will investigate companies and their executives together, but DOJ will not necessarily "negotiate[] outcomes" for these defendants at the same time. Rather, DOJ will "often" settle FCA claims with companies first. But, the fact that it does so will not end DOJ's "inquiry into whether and which individuals will be pursued."  In fact, whereas in the past DOJ's FCA settlements released both the corporation and its executives, it may not do so in the future:  "you should not assume we will be amenable to releasing individuals from [FCA] liability when we settle with the organization."

If individual liability is not resolved together in a corporate settlement, DOJ expects its lawyers "to have a plan for how to proceed in the investigation with respect to those responsible" individuals. While "recognizing" that "claims against individuals may not always be appropriate," DOJ will now require its attorneys to affirmatively "memorialize" any recommendation not to pursue an individual. Overall, AAG Baer noted that "we are disciplining ourselves to assess individual responsibility at the beginning of and throughout our FCA investigations."

Second, AAG Baer addressed how DOJ's new emphasis on civil accountability for corporate executives implicates companies seeking cooperation credit in FCA cases. As an initial matter, the AAG announced a "threshold requirement" whereby DOJ will not credit any company with cooperation in a settlement unless the corporation "disclose[s] all facts related to individuals involved in the wrongdoing."  He elaborated: 
  • "[U]nderstanding who did what is a necessary component" for DOJ to determine the nature and extent of any FCA violation. Essentially, a company seeking credit in an FCA settlement for its cooperation cannot withhold "critical" information that identifies those who should be held responsible.
  • A corporation demonstrates its commitment to "transparency" and cooperation by "disclosing the facts, including telling us what you know about who did what."
Cooperation, AAG Baer explained, "is not demonstrated by doing what the law requires" such as "compliance with subpoenas or other lawful demands." Rather, "genuine cooperation" involves a "focused presentation of relevant information demonstrating the actual conduct that is the subject of the investigation" and "stretches beyond the precise information that may have been requested by the government." The AAG provided the following examples of "full cooperation:" (i) a company's acknowledgement of responsibility, including in some instances "detailed and complete admissions;" (ii) remediation efforts; (iii) whether a company "reports information that might otherwise not have been discovered in the ordinary course of an investigation or that saves the government time and resources;" (iv) making available "current or former officers and employees for meetings, interviews, depositions;" and (v) disclosing facts gathered in an internal investigation.  

Internal investigations, the AAG went on, must be "tailored to the scope of wrongdoing" and cooperating companies must "make their best efforts to determine all the facts with the goal of identifying the individuals involved." That said, AAG Baer stated that companies do not need to wait until they have finished their internal investigations to self report. Rather, "timing . . . is of the essence," and companies "should come in as early as possible" even if they don't "quite have all the facts yet."

As for the attorney-client privilege, AAG Baer "emphasized" that "nothing in the individual accountability policy" requires the privilege to be waived.

As the reward for satisfying this "threshold requirement" and cooperating with the government's investigation, AAG Baer stated that "the department will use its significant enforcement discretion in FCA matters to recognize that cooperation." There is "no magic formula" or "equation," he explained, as to how much credit a cooperator might receive. Having eschewed any formula for earning cooperation, AAG Baer nevertheless analogized the "downward departures" for cooperation given by the government in federal guideline sentences to how DOJ should accord cooperation in FCA matters. Overall, he said, DOJ is "committed to taking into account the disclosures and other cooperation provided by defendants and to resolve matters for less than the matters would otherwise have settled for based on the applicable law and facts."

DOJ's new policy on individual accountability represents a significant change in FCA cases. Corporations -not individuals- have been the primary focus of most FCA cases in the past. There have been lots of exceptions, of course, especially for physicians accused of submitting false claims to Medicare or Medicaid. Yet, the past emphasis on corporations reflects the reality that it is largely corporations that contract with the government, submit false claims, and who most directly profit from them. The emphasis on corporate liability further reflects the fact that corporate entities are where the money is. Corporations, such as Big Pharma, defense contractors, and hospitals, have the resources to pay large FCA settlements.

Focusing on individual accountability likely will have a profound impact on government FCA investigations, interventions, and settlements. I anticipate that corporate internal investigations will be more involved and complicated. Individuals will lawyer up more quickly, be more concerned about their own exposure, and as a result may be less forthcoming with their employers. FCA investigations and cases are likely to become more complicated if only because cases are likely to have more parties: a corporation and its executives. As for settlements, they too will become more complicated. In Medicare cases, for example, there will be an increased focus on possibly excluding named individual defendants. Also, if individuals are named as subjects of an investigation, I would think that increases the possibility that they will turn against their employers more readily in order to earn cooperation. And, of course, what if a corporate employer refuses to indemnify the executive and/or employee?  

Finally, it will be interesting to see if DOJ and U.S. Attorneys will follow through in promoting this policy of individual accountability given that FCA investigations and cases often move quite slowly and this policy will require more time and substantial resources to enforce.

A. Brian Albritton
June 15, 2016